Abstract
Unique
development pattern is evolved in response to various geo-environmental
constraints which include difficult topography, complex geological
structure, adverse climate and fragile ecology in Indian hill towns.
These hill towns have been experiencing high pressure for development
due to rapid growth, increased employment opportunities and increased
tourist influx from last few decades; as a result, tremendous
development has taken place in these environmentally fragile hill towns,
which has drastically changed the overall environment in and around
hill towns. Different building regulations are enforced to guide and
regulate developmental activity in hill towns and minimise the impacts
of development on fragile and attractive environment of hill towns. But,
as evident from existing development these building regulations are
ambiguities and fail to address challenges for development in peculiar
hill context and consequently have enormous impacts on the urban
environment of hill towns.
This study attempts to
highlight various issues of existing development pattern and existing
building regulations of hill towns along with various factors
responsible for building regulations. Various impacts of building
regulations on urban environment of hill towns are also highlighted in
this study.
Keywords
- Hill towns;
- Building regulation;
- Urban development;
- Environment
Introduction
Indian
cities and towns are growing exponentially to meet ever-increasing
demand for buildings (residential, workplaces, recreational,
institutional) arising from large increase in urban population due to
high growth rate and migration. These cities and towns generally have
Greenfield development and are expanding outwards, consuming valuable
agricultural land to meet urbanisation demands. Due to this, large
unplanned and uncontrolled horizontal semi-urban extensions are
developed having low density low rise development. These semi-urban
extensions generally have unauthorised development(s) to cater housing
or shelter needs, which are mostly deprived of basic infrastructural
facilities (such as electricity, water supply, sewerage system,
transportation network and systems and solid waste management system).
The
scenario is more critical in north Indian hill towns, where land
available for urbanisation is scarce as development cannot be taken
place on all plots due to topography, slope morphology and other
geo-environmental constraints [1].
Moreover, people of hill towns generally possess irregular land
holdings which follow natural topographical profile, and often render
them difficult to develop; and residents are not able to purchase more
land for development due to limited availability of developable land,
high land cost and lower paying capacities of residents. Consequent upon
all these, development pattern in hill towns is characterised with
densely developed buildings having numerous issues and problems related
to planning design, construction and maintenance.
Settlements
or towns located in hill regions of India can be distinctly classified
into four categories, as hill towns below 14°N latitude, hill towns in
between 14° and 22.5°N latitude, hill towns in between 22.5° and 28°N
latitude and hill towns above 28°N latitude, (Fig. 1).
- Figure 1.Hill towns/stations in India.
Hill towns located below 14°N latitude:
All hill towns/settlements which are located in southern part of India
such as hill towns of Tamilnadu and Kerala viz Ooty, Kodaikanal,
Wayanad, Munnar Devikulam are located below 14°N latitude fall in this
category. These hill settlements get direct solar exposure for northern
and southern slopes. Northern slopes are preferred more for development
than southern slopes. Large building overhangs are required on both
north and southern directions for protection from direct solar exposure.
Hill towns lying between 14°N and 22.5°N latitude:
All hill towns/settlements located in between 14°N latitude and 22.5°N
latitude are considered in this category. Hill towns of Maharashtra such
as Khandala, Lonavla, Panchgani, and Saputara are generally considered
in this category.
Hill towns lying between 22.5°N and 28°N latitude:
All hill towns/settlements which are located in between 22.5°N and 28°N
Latitude are considered in this category. Hill towns of eastern part of
country such as Shillong, Gangtok, Darjeeling, Itanagar, Imphal,
Siliguri and Mount abu in western India are considered under this
category.
Hill towns lying above 28°N latitude:
All hill towns which are located in north India such as Shimla, Manali,
Nainital, Almora, Mussoorie, Dalhousie, Srinagar are located in this
zone. These hill towns have cold climate and no direct sun from north
side, thus southern slopes are most preferred for development work and
most of the development in these towns has taken place on southern
slopes only.
To
understand the existing scenario of development, it is important to
highlight development pattern and building regulations in hill towns
along with various factors responsible for amendment in existing
building regulations. Hill towns which are lying above 22.5°N Latitude
are considered for the study purpose.
Development pattern in Indian hill towns
As
per National Building Code 2005, part III, Annexure G, any area having
altitude more than 600 m from mean sea level or any area with average
slope of 30° is classified as hilly [2].
Depending upon the altitude and prevailing climatic conditions hill
regions are classified into Foot Hills (below 1200 m), MidHills
(1200–3500 m) and High hills (above 3500), with varied geo-environmental
conditions and resources available for development [3].
Most
of the hill towns (such as Shimla, Nainital, Dalhousie, Mussoorie,
Manali and Kasauli) are the most preferred tourist destinations situated
in the midhill regions. These hill towns were developed by British
during the pre-independent era and presently are main activity centres
and employment generators, which are experiencing huge pressure for
urbanisation due to high population growth and large migration from
surrounding villages for employment and better living conditions. The
development in these important hill stations/towns of India according to
Banta P.K. [4],
can be grouped into four main stages- first stage of colonial
dominance; second is after independence in 1947 when power had been
exercised by local elite; third stage when these hill stations became a
centre of socio-economic development; and fourth stage comprising of
present scenario of development (especially in the context of Shimla) (Fig. 2), when hill stations are under tremendous pressure of new development.
- Figure 2.Development in Indian hill town.
Hill
towns, such as Shimla, Nainital, Dalhousie and Mussoorie, developed by
Britishers had low density and low rise pattern of development and
consisted of low rise cottages for European and the Indian elite and
shop cum residential buildings for the local native population. These
hill towns/stations were designed to cater to the needs of a specific
population size, for example, Shimla town was planned and designed to
cater the maximum population of 25,000 people [5].
After independence, various hill towns became main centre of
administration, tourism, commerce, healthcare and education, and
attracted large populations from surrounding regions due to economic
activity and employment opportunities. As a result of which, low rise
low density pattern of development is presented in place of sparse
development in majority of hill towns of North India. The unique
urbanscape present in hill towns is a result of the weaving together of
topography, architecture, the arrangement of streets, urban spaces and
vistas [6].
The
present scenario of development is most critical in hill towns, as
these picturesque hill towns are experiencing tremendous pressure for
development, which has changed the overall image of hill towns. Due to
inadequacy of existing pattern of development to cater the increased
demand for residential, work places, recreational, commercial and
educational areas for both residential and floating population, there is
a shift from the low rise buildings to the midrise buildings in hill
towns, which covers almost entire hill slopes in major hill towns and
numerous midrise buildings are also being built on the peripheral areas
of hill towns. Though, midrise buildings are being built in hill towns
in response to high demand and unavailability of buildable land, but
prevailing building regulations do not have any provisions to regulate
midrise buildings, which results in development of midrise buildings
having problems related to site selection and location, layout, design
and materials, safety, services and visual appropriateness [7].
Problems/issues of development in hill towns
Hill
regions are ecologically sensitive zones having lower carrying
capacities, but most of the hill towns in India are densely populated
with multi-storeyed buildings facing problems such as depletion of green
areas, congestion, overcrowding, water scarcity, landslides, pollution
of lakes and streams, and destruction of scenic beauty and visual
blight, which affect the ecological balance. Moreover, major factors
which govern planning and construction of buildings in hill towns are
topography, climatic conditions, orientation, traffic movement,
available usable space, source of water supply, natural drainage and
paths [8] ; [9], but in present context, most of the hill settlements have issues/problems related to these vital issues.
Unprecedented
increase in population due to high growth, migration and large influx
of tourists become a huge challenge for hill towns, which result in
heavy pressure on the housing and infrastructural facilities, and lead
to construction of more multi-storeyed buildings in hill towns for
residential, office, commercial purposes. The infrastructural facilities
provided viz., parking provisions, water supply, sanitation are
presently insufficient to cater the increased population.
Most
hill towns have problems related to coverage of high and dangerous
slopes, more than 35° to 40° which are likely to devastate during
earthquake and multiply the damage due to chain effect [4].
More number of storeys coupled with high FAR and coverage, and thereby
limited light, air and ventilation may lead to environmental chaos and
affect human health. Moreover, hill towns are susceptible to different
types of natural hazards such as landslides, earthquakes, floods,
cloudburst, and fire, and most of the buildings which are constructed or
being-constructed lack various safety considerations to mitigate the
impact of these natural disasters.
Buildable
lands available in hill towns are limited due to topographical features
in hill towns, and have very high price. As a consequence of this,
fertile agriculture land in the suburbs or outskirts of hill towns is
used for development purpose due to its lower price, weak land policies,
improper development plan proposals and techno-legal regime, and weak
economic background of farmers. There is deterioration in the quality of
living environment due to unsuitable and unsafe building stock for
habitation, insufficient infrastructure, narrow roads, inadequate open
spaces and reduction in green areas, which are the outcomes of wrong
planning and building regulations and inappropriate planning and design
solutions [10].
Building regulations in hill towns
Building
regulations are formulated to give answers to two important questions,
‘what to develop’, and ‘how to develop’ in a city/town/area with an aim
to protect public health, safety, general welfare and environment [11].
These are the set of rules, which are imposed on ‘development work’ in a
city to provide statutory regulations on the planning, design and
construction of buildings and associated works, making provisions for
rendering safety off dangerous buildings and lands, and making
provisions for matters connected to enforcement and approval authority [12].
Building
regulations enforced in India are mostly inspired from National
Building code and Delhi Master Plans, and with or without slight
modifications these regulations are legislated in different states under
town and country planning act or municipal acts, and became the source
of deriving different regulations for cities and towns present in the
jurisdiction of a state. E.g. setback is a regulation which governs the
extent of solar and wind exposure to a building and need to be
formulated for specific context of a town to achieve solar exposure for
specific duration throughout the year but in present regulations similar
setback regulations are enforced throughout the country for a
particular use. Building regulations with or without any changes are
enforced within the jurisdictions of local governing authorities (such
as municipal council, municipal committee) to regulate the development
activity. Similar procedure is adopted for formulating and enforcing
building regulations in hill towns. But due to varied context for
development of hill towns than towns in plains, prevailing building
regulations in hill towns are contextually inappropriate as they do not
account for geo-environmental and natural context of hill towns.
Different building regulations which are enforced for residential
development in hill towns of India are shown in Table 1[13].
As a result many issues (such as ecological sensitivity, proneness to
hazards, visibility) which are most critical for development in hill
towns remain neglected in existing building regulations.
- Table 1. Existing building regulations of residential buildings in hill towns.
Town Type of building Plot area (in sq. m) Coverage (%) Setbacks (in metres)
No. of storeys F.A.R Building height (in metres) Front Side Rear Shimla Row housing Above 200 2.50 – 2.00 4 1.75 18.00 Dalhousie Up to 150 70 3.0 – 2 2 11.80 Manali Up to 120 65 3.0 – 2.0 4 2 18.80 Srinagar Up to 100 40 3.0 – 1.8 1.5 16.50 Mussoorie Up to 100 70 2.0 – – 3 1.30 11.00 Mussoorie Up to 200 65 2.0 – 1.5 3 1.50 11.00 Shimla Semi-detached buildings Above 200 3.00 3.00 2.00 4 1.75 18.00 Dalhousie 150–250 60 3.0 3 2 2 11.80 Manali 121–250 60 3.0 2.0 2.0 4 2 18.80 Shillong Up to 200 50 3.0 1.0 1.0 4 2.0 19.00 Srinagar 100–150 40 4.5 2.4 2.4 4 1.5 16.50 Mussoorie Up to 300 60 3.0 1.5 3.0 3 1.50 11 Shimla Detached buildings Above 200 3.00 2.0 2.0 4 1.75 18.00 Dalhousie 251–500 55 3.0 2 2 2 11.80 Manali 121–250 60 3.0 2.0 2.0 4 1.75 18.80 Manali 251–500 55 3.0 2.0 2.0 4 1.5 18.80 Shillong 201–300 50 3.0 1.2 1.8 4 2.0 19.00 Shillong 300–400 50 3.0 1.8 2.5 4 2.0 19.00 Shillong 400–500 50 3.0 1.8 3.0 4 2.0 19.00 Srinagar 150–500 40 4.5 3.0 3.0 4 1.5 16.50 Srinagar 200–500 40 6.0 3.0 3.0 4 1.5 16.50 Mussoorie Up to 400 55 4.5 2.0 3.0 3 1.60 11 Dalhousie Above 500 50 3.0 2 2 2 11.80 Manali Above 501 50 3.0 3.0 3.0 4 1.25 18.80 Shillong Above 500 50 3.0 1.8 3.0 4 2.0 19.00 Srinagar Above 500 40 6.0 3.0 4.5 4 1.5 16.50 Mussoorie Above 400 50 7.5 3.0 5.0 3 1.70 11
New
development/buildings built according to existing building regulations,
not only do not contribute to sustainability of the settlement/s;
environmental degradation is witnessed along with increased construction
activity in most of the hill towns located in north Himalayan region of
India. Moreover, existing regulations applicable at town level (i.e.
same regulations applicable for specific landuse without any respect to
topographical location, slope angle and direction, hazard potential of
the site and improper setback conditions) result in inappropriate
development/growth pattern and form.
The
in-force building regulations are need to be amended to overcome need
for more built spaces, to accommodate higher population densities, and
to achieve higher standards of safety and better living conditions, and
have impact on urban environment of hill towns. Development authorities,
in order to cater, may acquire additional land under town limits for
development, change/modify the existing landuse [14],
and change in any building regulations. The various factors responsible
for amendments in regulations of hill towns, and impact of these
amendments on urban environment are discussed in detail below.
Considerations for building regulations in hill towns
Various
factors which are peculiar to hill towns and guide developmental
authorities in formulation of new building regulations and their
amendments or modifications in context of hill towns of India are
population growth (natural growth and migration), tourism, scarcity of
buildable land and increase in land cost, increase in awareness about
environmental and social concerns and occurrence and vulnerability to
natural hazards.
Population growth
There
is a tremendous increase in population in previous 3–4 decades in hill
towns of India due to high growth rate and migration from surrounding
regions due to availability of employment opportunities and better
living condition in hill towns, which lead to change in density and
development pattern. To accommodate the ever-increasing population there
is a need to undertake housing projects in different areas/zones of
hill towns, which can be facilitated either by developing new areas for
housing, modifying existing building regulations or formulating new
building regulations favouring housing projects/group housing in
different hill towns. Moreover, due to increase in population there is a
huge demand for public transportation and there is an increase in
private vehicle ownership, which requires new or modified regulations
related to road width and parking provisions.
Tourism
Tourism
is major source of economy in hill towns, which has increased manifold
in last few decades due to higher paying capacity of people, change in
life style and improved accessibility of hill towns to people living in
major/large cities. To cater the need of tourist, a large number of
commercial establishments in the form of hotels, guest houses, shops,
restaurants are required along with recreational and transportation
facilities, which can be facilitated by change/modification in existing
landuse and building regulations related to Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R),
road widths, parking.
Scarcity of buildable land
There
is a scarcity of suitable buildable land in hill towns due to steep
topography, undesirable slope direction, different geo-environmental
constraints and proneness to natural hazards. Therefore, there is a need
to formulate building regulations so as to optimise the use of limited
suitable space for development. This scarcity of suitable buildable land
leads to increase in land prices in hill towns.
Increasing awareness toward environmental and social concerns
With
increase in global concerns and awareness related to sustainability,
energy efficiency and climate change, the awareness of society related
to desired responses from built environment have changed significantly.
There are concerns related to environmental protection, cutting of
trees, disturbance of natural drainage pattern, pollution of air land
and water, depleting forest cover, lowering ground water table and
drying of surface water sources. There are concerns and awareness in
society related to energy conservation and management, water
conservation and management, efficient treatment of sewage and waste
water and its reuse and proper disposal and garbage treatment and
disposal. Moreover, awareness related to different social issues such as
universal and disable friendly designs, safety and security against
crimes in public places, provisions for elderly and children, accesses
for emergency response and safety and stability against natural hazards
and fire has increased in society and building regulations need to be
formulated or modified to address issues of built environment related to
these crucial social and environmental issues.
Occurrence and vulnerability to natural hazards
Safety
against natural hazards is a critical concern in hill towns due to
their proneness to different natural disasters. Due to occurrence of
natural hazards in other similar zones/regions, the concerns related to
safety of natural hazards in areas with similar geotechnical character
are increased. To ensure safety against natural hazards and minimal loss
of human life and resources during hazards, different safety standards
and technological advancements need to be incorporated in building
regulations if already not present, which can be done by modifying
building regulations.
Impact of amendments in building regulations on urban environment of hill towns
The
urban environment of a town is a collective result of various planning
policies, development plan proposals, architectural design solutions and
building regulations. However, building regulations are the controlling
and regulatory mechanism to ensure efficient implementation of various
polices and plan proposals, and to achieve a specific character in the
context. These regulations have been modified many times to implement
different policies and plan proposals in order to achieve desired
character.
As evident
from the study of building regulations and the condition of existing
development in hill towns, existing building regulations and their
modifications affect overall functioning of town and their impact can be
observed on different aspects of urban built environment. In addition
to impacts of building regulations on infrastructural facilities and
land availability and values, impacts of building regulations on
different aspects of urban environment in specific context of Shimla are
discussed as follows:
- (i)
- Impact on natural environment.
- (ii)
- Impact on development pattern.
- (iii)
- Impact on existing buildings.
- (iv)
- Impact on new development.
- (v)
- Impact on transportation network and system.
- (vi)
- Impact on open spaces and social infrastructure.
- (vii)
- Impact on townscape.
Impact on natural environment
Existing
development pattern which is outcome of building regulation amendments
has enormous impacts on natural environment of Shimla. Cutting of slopes
for development work is a common phenomenon in hill towns which affects
the ecology and environment of the region. The extent of
cutting/quantity of excavated earth is dependent upon building footprint
and slope angle. Existing regulations permit buildings with larger
footprints, which require large cutting of sloping grounds (even more
than permissible limits), which cause disturbance to natural drainage
pattern, and lead to loss of vegetation, affect ecology of area and may
trigger natural hazards (such as landslides). Existing vegetation cover
available on-site is removed for construction purposes (Fig. 3),
results in barren slopes covered with buildings without any vegetation,
which become more prone to slope failure and further extent of soil
erosion increases during rain. Moreover, flattening of sloping terrain
results in loss of valuable and fertile top soil and debris produced
after cutting of slope is generally dumped in valleys or near water
channels, disturbing or blocking natural flow of water and increase
siltation in downstream areas. Though regulations related to maximum
permissible cutting of slopes are present, but slopes in Shimla (Fig. 4)
are cut much more than the permissible limits. Due to intensive
development consequent upon inappropriate building regulations and their
noncompliance, natural features like springs are adversely affected as
many of them either are dried up or are become polluted.
- Figure 3.Buildings covering entire hill slope in Shimla town.
- Figure 4.Conversion of green slopes into concrete buildings in Shimla.
Impact on development pattern
Building
regulations are formulated to achieve regulated and systematic
development and are amended to achieve higher population densities,
which affects development pattern of a town. Shimla has predominately
low rise and high density development but due to amendments in building
regulations, new development pattern having midrise buildings is emerged
in Shimla (Fig. 5).
Due to high seismic vulnerability of Shimla, the change in development
pattern from low rise to midrise development requires reformulation of
different safety considerations against natural hazards. The absence of
specific building regulations pertaining to midrise developments, and
inadequate emergency infrastructure to deal with any disaster, further
intensifies the inappropriateness of mid-rise buildings in Shimla.
- Figure 5.Change in development pattern due to existing building regulations in Shimla.
Impact on existing buildings
The
extent of development on a plot/area is controlled through existing
building regulation. But, due to modifications in building regulations
(especially increase in F.A.R), more development is permitted on already
developed areas/sites. Owners have an option of adding more
floors/storey(s) to existing buildings, which results in increased
height of building and change in development pattern, inadequate spacing
between two buildings, inappropriate relation between street width and
building heights (light plane), change in energy consumption (appliances
and pattern), inappropriate scale and proportions of adjacent buildings
and level and type of building services required for smooth operations.
Facade and aesthetic qualities of building(s) are also affected as
existing and newly built portion are generally constructed with
different architectural style, materials and construction techniques in
Shimla (Fig. 6).
- Figure 6.Development of new building in contrast to existing buildings in hill towns.
Impact on new development
Due
to change in building regulations; use, occupancy type, number of users
and building services required are affected. Volume and/or footprints
of buildings is increased which results in higher energy consumption and
change in facades design and treatment. Use of new and contemporary
materials, new construction technologies and equipment results in fast,
economical and better quality of construction in hill towns. Amendments
in building regulations result in higher safety considerations
(structural as well as against natural hazards), as safety measures
against natural hazards become essential part of building design due to
increased height of building, which is a consequence of modification in
building regulations (Fig. 7).
- Figure 7.Mid-rise buildings in seismically vulnerable Shimla town.
Impact on transportation network and system
Roads
are the main mode of transportation in Shimla, which have a smaller
width as compared to same typologies in plains. Due to high population,
employment opportunities and modification in building regulations to
accommodate increased population, a number of commuters are increased
tremendously, which exert more pressure on existing public transport
system in Shimla, which is already overloaded, inefficient, unmaintained
and mismanaged, and thus forcing residents to opt for private vehicles
in place of public mode. Due to these reasons, roads have much more
traffic than their designed capacities, and result in traffic jams,
accidents, slow speed and more trip duration. This condition is further
aggravated by roadside parked vehicles in the absence of designated
parking facilities at suitable locations in Shimla. Moreover, widening
of roads to accommodate more vehicles is cumbersome task, due to
unavailability of flat lands and construction of most of the buildings
abutting to the road in Shimla.
Impact on open spaces and social infrastructure
The
need (extent and quality) of social infrastructure (such as educational
facilities, health facilities, and recreational, cultural and religious
facilities) is dependent upon population. Presently population of
Shimla is increasing at a high rate due to high growth and migration.
Due to which, town is facing shortage of social infrastructure and The
Ridge and the Mall are mostly used social interaction spaces in the
town. Moreover, there are many instances of encroachments on public
areas, open land and on roads which further reduces the available open
spaces. Moreover, there is a need to distribute these open spaces and
social facilities evenly throughout the town so that residents of all
localities should be benefited.
Impact on townscape
Shimla
has high visibility due to its location on ridge and sloping
topography, due to which not only front facade of buildings but all
sides as well as roof are also visible from distant locations. Skyline,
facade treatment, open spaces are the outcome of different planning
proposals and existing building regulations, which are affected by
modification of building regulations and insufficient compliance with
building regulations, as due to modification, residents tend to
construct more areas on plot by either covering open areas or adding
extra storey/s without respecting the picturesque setting and aesthetic
quality of town (Fig. 8).
- Figure 8.Buildings with unattractive facades and roofscapes in Shimla.
Conclusion
There
is a unique environment (natural and manmade) for development in
ecologically sensitive hill towns, which guides all types and patterns
of development, and these conditions are not so pronounced in other
towns of same size in other parts. But as evident from present scenario
of hill towns, building regulations failed to address these unique
conditions as the regulations lack the context. Moreover, these improper
building regulations impart adverse impact on urban environment of hill
towns and render them environmentally unsustainable and ecologically
inappropriate.
Amendments
in building regulations are inevitable due to increasing population,
advancement in construction technology, changing global concerns over
environment and ecology, and safety against natural hazards. There is a
need to adopt a holistic approach to propose amendments in existing
regulations, and various possible impacts of change in regulation/s on
other regulations and urban environment of hill towns need to be
investigated before implementation.
Various
geo-environmental and developmental factors such as Topography,
stability, slope direction, existing vegetation, access and visual
significance should formulate the basic premise to formulate building
regulations for a specific hill town. New building regulations should be
formulated at local level depending upon the intrinsic characteristics
of area/zones of a town and their impacts on urban environment in and
around hill towns need to be monitored.
To
formulate new building regulations in a hill town different area/zone
characteristic maps such as, topography and slope aspect map, hazards
potential map, existing vegetation map, access and aesthetic
significance map are need to be prepared for Shimla town. Since, landuse
map indicating different use specified to different zones/localities is
not sufficient enough to specify the feasibility of particular use
and/or extent of desirable development under particular use in an
area/zone of hill town. These different area/zone characteristic maps
should be made available to public along with landuse map and proposed
building regulations.
Conflict of interest
The author declare that there are no conflict of interests.
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